APPROACHES AND METHODS

METHODS and APPROACHES

Approach

Something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm, a theory.

A set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and 
          teaching.

Method

          A set of procedures

A system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a second or foreign
          language

An overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a
          selected approach

Technique

A classroom device or activity

Specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a
          method and in harmony with an approach as well.

               Based on: Anthony (1963 in Brown, 2007); Celce-Murcia (2001)

SOME OF THE PROMINENT METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. The Grammar Translation Method

            This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.

Description: Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Theory of language        : None

Theory of Learning        : Language was learned as any other school subjects
Objectives                      : Learners learned for the sake of being scholarly, or
                                       to gain reading proficiency

Activity type                  : Translating disconnected sentences (taken from
                                      classical texts) from the target language into the
                                      mother tongue (or vice versa)
Characteristics               : Instruction in L1; little use of the target language for
                                      communication; focus on grammar, early reading of
                                      difficult texts, the teacher does not have to be able to

                                        speak the target language.

2. Direct Method/Approach

          This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation method in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.

Description:

Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

Theory of Language       : Language is a means of thinking

Theory of Learning        : Second language learning should be more like first
                                        language learning—lots of oral interaction, 
                                         spontaneous, no translation, no grammatical use

Objectives                      : Native-like fluency, oral, spontaneous

Activity type                  : Lessons begin with dialogues, orally

Characteristics               : Target language at all times; everyday vocabulary
                                      and sentences; grammar taught inductively , modeling
                                      and practice, concrete vocabulary taught through
                                      demonstration, correct grammar and pronunciation
                                      emphasized; teacher should be a native speaker

3. The Reading Approach

          This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons: for specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.

          The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important than grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.

4. The Audiolingual Method

          This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.

Description:

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

Theory of Language       : Language is a system of rule-governed structures 
                                        hierarchically arranged.

Theory of learning                   : Habit formation, skills are learned more effectively if
                                        oral precedes written; analogy, not analysis

Objectives                      : Control of structures of sound, form, and order;
                                         goal toward native-speaker mastery

Activity type                  : Dialogues, drills, repetition, memorization, pattern 
                   practice

Characteristics               : Lessons begin with dialogues, lots of mimicry and  memorization, grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively; reading and writing are postponed; pronunciation stressed; vocabulary limited, mistakes not tolerated, language is manipulated, the teacher must be proficient in the structures, vocabulary taught, have good pronunciation

Communicative Language Teaching

Theory of Language       : Language is a system for the expression of meaning; 
                       primary function—interaction and communication
                     2 guiding principles: (1) grammar, vocabulary,
                      phonology and l. functions; (2)  enough exposure to
                      .L2 and high motivation so learning is “natural”

Theory of learning         : Doing activities that involve real communication,
                     carrying out meaningful tasks, and using language
                     which is meaningful to the learner promote learning.

Objectives                      : Learners’ ability to communicate in the target  
          language

Activity type                  : Sharing, negotiating meaning, interaction, authentic
                   tasks

Characteristics               : Students work in groups; students engage in role  plays, discussions, lots of authentic materials and tasks, integrated skills; the teacher should be able to use the language fluently.

2002: The Modern Integrated Language Teacher
         

Characteristic: Teachers do not adopt any particular method.

1.     use translation when it is quick and efficient to get across meaning;

2.     still teach grammar, a reference point, not a starting point;

3.     use drilling (e.g. listen-repeat), e.g. to pratice pronunciation;

4.     use practice exercises (e.g. gap-fills) to raise students’ awareness of certain vocabulary items & grammar;

5.     use focus on functional expressions when students listen to a tape model of a telephone call;

6.     use information gaps almost all the time,

7.     use personalisaton all the time,

8.     use a task-based approach;

9.     use output feedback

10.                        sometimes use TTT (test-teach-test) or PPP (present-practice-produce)

11.                        use noticing activities practically all the time

                                                                                      (Charles Lowe, 2003)
AN OVERVIEW OF LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES

The teaching of Latin (and Greek) 1600’s—1800’s

                            

1. GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

1850’s—1950’s (now L!!!)

R-W, Sentence/Lit., Gr.-deductive, Translation, m. of instr. L1

 

2. DIRECT APPROACH/METHOD

1884—1920’s (ànow)

L-S, Sentence, Gr.-inductive, No Translation, L2, Demonstration

 

3. Reading Approach

(1920’s-1930’s/1940,s)

(R, “back” to GTM, selected gr. & vocab)

4. AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD (USA)/ 5. ORAL-Situational APPROACH (UK)

1940’s—1960’sà1970’s

L-S, Gr.-Inductive, Some transl. ok, Drills: habit formation

 

6. COGNITIVE CODE/APPROACH (1970’s)

                L-S-R-W, Rules, Grammar-Deductive, No drills, Lang. is creative

 

7. Affective-Humanistic Approach (1970’s)

 

8. Comprehension-Based Approach/(Krashen’s) Natural Approach (1970’s)

 

9. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH/LANGUAGE TEACHING

1980’s up to now

L-S-R-W, Meaning, comprehensible pronunciation, Communicative Competence

 

10. Literacy/GENRE-BASED approach

1990’s up to now (Aus)

Oral-Written, generic structures, text grammar, communicative competence at informational literacy level

Elt development in Indonesia*)

The Dutch Period before World War II—1945

• Junior High (together with Dutch and German or French)
• Good pronunciation emphasized, lots of textbooks and supplementary readings
• Exams consisted of grammar, composition and translation (GTM). As a result, High school graduates at that time could speak, read, and write good English.

The Japanese Period (1942—1945)

• Dutch and English were banned and books burned. Books were translated into bahasa Indonesia. The decline of English as well as Dutch; blessing in disguise for bahasa Indonesia, but bad impact on English learning later.

Early Independence Period (1945—1950)

• English taught again beginning from SMP (GTM)

1954

• PTPG (Perguruan Tinggi Pendidikan Guru) in Malang, Bandung, Batusangkar.
• STC (Standard Training Course) (Audio-lingual Approach)  was set up in Jogyakarta and Bukittinggi (excellent graduates)

By 1962

• Salatiga Materials were produced (Students’ Book) (Audio-lingual Approach)

Prior to 1965

• Students were not allowed to learn English outside the classroom.

In 1968

• An English Language Project was set up by the Ministry of Education to address problems of English instruction in schools.

1985

• PKG—combination of TPR, Krashen’s Monitor Model and CLT (speaking, grammar emphasized).

1994

• The Meaningfulness Approach (reading emphasized, language functions, grammar sekilas info)

2004

• KBK (Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi) : Introducing the genre-based approach

2006

• KTSP: School-based, Competency-based and Literacy Approach/Genre-based

(integrated: LSRW + S/P, V, G + Functions, discourse)

2013

• Kurikulum 2013: school-based, competency-based, genre-based, integrated

*) Except for KBK (2004) and KTSP (2006), based on Sadtono, 1997, pp. 1-19.

(3) PRINCIPLES OF SECOND/FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Principles	Notes
1. Automaticity    Ultimate goal: “without    thinking (anymore)”	To gain automaticity, do not overanalyze, do not think too much about forms and rules. Help your learners to achieve fluency.
2. Meaningful Learning     “interesting, linked”	Meaningful learning is better than rote learning because it leads toward better long-term retention.
3. Anticipation of Reward     “human beings act to be      in some ways, rewarded”	Immediate reward is important, but let the students know the long-term reward of being able to use the target language.
4. Intrinsic Motivation     “needs, wants, desires”	Classroom techniques must be self-rewarding: fun, interesting, useful, or challenging.
5. Strategic Investment    “students’ strategies are as      important as the teacher’s    methods”	Learners must invest their own time, effort, and attention to learning the target language in the form of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. Use a variety of techniques.
6. (Learner) Autonomy “controlling one’s own learning”	Success depends on learner’s ability to take initiative in the classroom and beyond, e.g. extensive R and L.
7. Language Ego     “afraid to make mistakes,     feel silly”	Learners may feel helpless, defensive, and shy. So, treat them with tender loving care (in giving turns, correcting errors, grouping)! ♥♥♥
8. Willingness to communicate     “having self-confidence and      willing to take risks”	Students should take risks and gain self-confidence because by believing that they are capable, students are likely to be really successful.
9. The Language-Culture Connection      “CCU”	Compare-contrast, understand, adopt-adapt Examples: Halloween, Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day. ? English as a global language
10. The Native Language       Effect     “L1 cause of error can help”	First language can facilitate and/or interfere with the learning process.  Thinking directly in L2 minimizes interference. Discourage translation from L1.
11. Interlanguage     “learners’ (developmental)       language”	Learn from errors and mistakes. Peer correction is a good way of making the students become aware of their mistakes/errors without losing faces. Feedback!
12. Communicative     Competence      Ling., socioling., discourse,        strategic competence              (Canale & Swain, 1980)	CC—not only linguistic competence—is the goal of a language classroom; lang. use & usage; fluency & accuracy; authentic language & context; students’ need to use the language in the real world. E.g. Give opportunities to practice strategic competence.

Task: Do ‘interactive cross-word puzzle’, decide if the above principles were at work.